Conclusion: Tejanos, the Concept of Patriotism, and Memory

Background
Civil War background & UT Monuments of all sorts are interpretive tools (Lost Cause)
1. In the simplest of terms, monuments serve primary purpose of remembrance/community cohesion
2. They are public statements of shared values—both ideal and real
3. Monuments demonstrate a form of cultural and political place for a community.

I. The Memorials
A. 2004: Laredo and the Hispanic Congressional Medal of Honor
1. On July 4, 2004, officials from Laredo, veterans, & other dignitaries unveiled a statue
to honor the 41 Hispanic veterans who had received the Congressional Medal of Honor
2. The Laredo Hispanic Veterans Memorial
B. 2008: El Paso Company E Memorial Plaza was dedicated in South El Paso
1. Beto O’Rourke (city Rep) urged the city to recognize the men in Company E, a unit
made up of all Mexican Americans from the area
C. 2013: Veterans War Memorial Plaza in McAllen
1. Started in 1990 by Frank Plummer, a WW II veteran and retired real estate developer.
2. Project finally completed on Veterans Day in 2013
a) site has 160 granite panels with stories containing historical information on each
war, citizenships & events of that time as well as a statue known as "The Warrior"
D. Murals in SA
1. Chicano heritage
E. Tejano Monument in Austin
1. No military dedicated statue/monument but a monument to Tejanos noted on capitol
grounds
F. Raul Chavarria—Tejano military service remains a rich and varied topic
1. omplexity of how Tejanos viewed their service is exemplified by how Korean War
veteran Raúl M. Chavarría thought nothing of flying two flags, for the United States
and Mexico, outside his Laredo home when I visited for an oral history interview
G. My thesis is that Tejano military service of the past is a deeply complex and rich topic that
can make you smile, make you sad, make you angry, or even make you wonder. In sum, it is
the perfect vehicle for exploring the idea of the human element of history

II. Memory
Tejano military service was not a hegemonic experience forged through the prisms of assimilation and
patriotism. Rather, Mexican Texans altered their motivations in the various wars of the twentieth
century, shifting based on a complex set of intrinsic and extrinsic values.
But, on the Texas-Mexico border, the narrative of nationalism remains strong. In 2024, local political
leaders pushed a bill to rename one of the local post offices for two war veterans, Lance Cpl. David
Lee Espinoza, Sgt. Roberto Arizola Jr., and Lance Cpl. Juan Rodriguez
A. The Memorials for the Tejano Veterans take an added measure in the 21 st century
1. Alfredo “Freddy” Gonzalez—Edinburg bravery MoH posthumously
a) Congressional Medal of Honor in Vietnam
b) Beyond statues: The USS Freddy Gonzalez (schools/parks/streets)
2. Collective Memory: enough people sitting together discussing the memories of the
same event will find common ground
a) The more people in the Discussion, the more collective the memory becomes
b) The result is society with common ideas about the past
c) Most memories of the past endure through frameworks created by social
groups always at hand

3. How does collective memory and debates look like?

• Enola Gay: How to remember the atomic bomb
• Confederate statues: how Americans remember a war fought over slavery
• Museums and Memorials as well as commemorative activities are cultural
  representations of history

4. Reasons for War Memorials
a) Recognition of Sacrifice
b) Cultural Values
c) Community Identity

Emphasis on Nationalism can likely be traced back to the problems of post WW II US [discrimination]
*Beating of Private Ben Aguirre in 1947
*Felix Longoria burial in 1948
*Arrest of Macario Garcia [Medal of Honor] in 1945 after fighting restaurant owner

Loyalty cannot be questioned with public memory

I. Intro: The Changing Landscape of Civil Rights
A. LULAC’s and Am GI Forum’s Assimilation messaging not resonating by 1960s
1. Discrimination still prevalent and voting still limited until 1964
2. By late 1960s Chicano Movement takes hold
a) Different
b) Non-Assimilation
c) Younger Generations (similar to broader Civil Rights movements of late 60s)

B. Military Service still way out of poverty as main influence
C. New Factors
1. Hollywood—John Wayne and War Movies of the 1950s and 1960s resonated
2. Family History (fathers/uncles/brothers had served and military families the norm)
3. Military brainwashing worked: 1950s Conservatives and Eisenhower

II. Vietnam
A. Origins
1. Fear of Communism
2. Foreign Policy and Abstract Ideas

B. Service
1. New Soldiers demonstrated a love for military previous generations had not known
2. Basic Training had new dynamics as Tejanos and other Hispanic soldiers in the middle
of the tense strife between white and black troops in age of Civil Rights

C. Combat

1. Loyalty to Fellow Soldiers took place instead of loyalty to country
   a) Story of Eduardo Teniente and his friend Ignacio “Nacho” Torres
2. Frustrations
   a) Guerrilla Warfare
   b) An enemy they could not understand
   c) Wawro: $168,000 per every enemy combatant the US killed
3. Heroism
   a) Roy Benavidez from El Campo—The Tejano GI Joe
   b) Alfredo “Freddy” Gonzalez—Edinburg bravery MoH posthumously
4. Discrimination
   a) Muted “Speedy” Gonz moniker but Tejanos more apt to fight back than before
   b) Class discrimination (the war was inherently against the poor—deferments)
   c) Chicano leaders were more inclined to criticize the war than before

III. Memory
A. The Antiwar dissent that defined the war was still absent with the Tejano community
1. Tejanos were anti Communist/pro capitalist/pro-America
B. Tejanos are Memorializing the war via Murals and Community Projects
1. See Dr. Ricardo Romo’s Projects (Romo first Tejano sub 4 min miler)
http://latinopia.com/blogs/ricardo-romos-tejano-report-10-08-21-honoring-latino-
military-heroes/

I. Intro: The Letdown of the Greatest Generation and the Good War
A. The Felix Longoria Affair (Three Rivers Funeral for WW II vet)
B. The Beating of Private Ben Aguirre (West Texas)
1. Teens beat Aguirre but well connected did minimal punishment
C. Catalysts
1. American GI Forum—Dr. Hector P. Garcia and Corpus
2. LULAC continued to gain strength

II. American Ideals
A. Cold War accentuated the Stars and Stripes and Apple Pie
1. Fear of the Soviets: distinguishing from Godless Communism
2. Concerted efforts to emphasize the importance of the military
a) For Tejanos this resonated: skills, money, education (GI Bill), country
b) Military bases throughout Texas emphasized the presence of the military

B. Immigration
1. Military Service and Path to Citizenship
a) Raul Chavarria (Laredo)—Military service led to citizenship
2. Protection against wave of deportations (AGAIN) under Eisenhower
a) Operation Wetback (according to INS) deported 1.3 million in 1954 alone

C. Korea
1. Cold War conflict—abstract ideas such as protecting the nation from Communists
2. Motives
a) Love of country
b) Economic Opportunities
c) Personal Honor: Horacio Vela (example) who thought about fleeing but chose to
fight for the importance of respect
d) Fear of Communism
3. Elvis’s Army
a) The draft was omnipresent in the 1950s
b) ROTC units common in Texas High Schools
 Military thus not as feared as in prior generations
 Picnics, demonstrations, and presence of armed forces in anytown Texas
made it easier to join the military

III. Memory
A. Richard Cavazos Congressional Medal of Honor (from Kingsville)
1. Served in Korea and Vietnam (awards for both)
2. 1 st Four Star General in late 20 th century (Texas Tech grad)
3. Fort Hood named in honor after names of Confederates removed
a) Fort Cavazos did not last long (Trump)
b) Name erased
B. Korea as a Forgotten War

The Blowback
A. The WW I Legacy

• LULAC not for all (middle class)
• Great Depression of 1930s in which the New Deal excludes Tejanos

B. Deportations

• Deportations in the 1930s hindered the goal of assimilation
• During the interwar years, Mexican Americans in Texas had a stronger sense of
  belonging to the United States than ever before

World War II
A. Pearl Harbor

• The Lockhart Incident (July 1941)
• American Loyalty (the “Good War”?)

B. Military

• Motives varied, patriotism clearly evident
• I Think Nobody is More American Than I Am” Ramon Martin Rivas
• The father of UT Austin’s Maggie Rivas Rodriguez who spearheaded the Oral Latino Voices project
• Basic Training
• The federal govt. knew there were problems and began preparing for
  racism and discrimination prior to the 1941 bombing
• Common Council for American Unity (1940) published a periodical CommonGround with purpose of creating unity & understanding amongst Americans
• Immigration & Naturalization Service (1941)) prepared broadcasts by
  naturalized Americans, I Am an American (famous names = Albert Einstein)
• Hollywood (1940) also got into the act with Knute Rockne, All American
• Ronald Reagan made a point of celebrating the American immigrant heritage with Rockne
• Advantages: Tejanos saw military life as a way to escape poverty (stories on how they finally had food, shelter, and electricity)
• Homefront
  a) Fully on board (examples—just like Main Street USA)
• Heroism
  a) Macario Garcia—Cong Medal of Honor (1 st immigrant) in Europe
  b) Company E—all Mexican unit from El Paso in Europe theater
• Stories of these men from the same neighborhood akin to Band of Brothers

Impact
A. Memory—Tejanos became more proactive to claim status as heroes

• Monuments in El Paso (2 for Company E)

B. Civil Rights—LULAC & American GI Forum

• Americanization main goal

Early 20th Century Woes
A. Economy
1. Land displacement—Commercial landowners
a) Old system of accommodation breaks down during this time period
2. Immigration
a) Population at 125,016 by 1910
b) Diaz regime ended in 1910 & vacuum led to the MX Revolution (1920)

1910-1917
1. La Matanza (the Killings)
2. Texas Rangers/law enforcement/US Army all mobilized to the border as spillover
violence (real or imagined) allowed them to react against Tejanos with impunity
- Website to look at: https://refusingtoforget.org/

WW I
A. Choices to register for draft or flee to Mexico
1. Though some fled across the border, majority stayed

B. Military
1. Motives varied, but patriotism began to creep in for some
- Jose De la Luz Saenz (teacher)
2. The goal of making a name for themselves Homefront supported the
war—neutrality no longer an option
3. Heroism
a) David Barkley Cantu (hid his ethnic background) but Cong Medal of Honor
b) Marcelino Serna—immigration story (join or be deported)
- Distinguished Service Cross/Purple Heart/French Croix de Guerre/War
Merit Cross (Italy)
- But no Congressional Medal of Honor for reasons unknown (as late as
2025 family and political leaders were agitating the Biden administration
to award him a medal but to no avail)

Impact
A. Memory—Tejanos left out of the monument building craze across the country
1. Look at the soldier statue outside Memorial stadium
2. WW I led to students naming UT Austin’s football stadium as Memorial Stadium
before they tarnished it with adding Darrel K. Royal’s name to it LOL

B. Civil Rights—LULAC
1. Americanization main goal
2. War service led to opportunities

B. Loyalty
1. Banditry and Revolutionary Activity on the Border
2. Events in Mexico had outcasts from Diaz regime operating on the border
a) Catarino Garza and Francisco Sandoval
b) Agitated against Diaz from Texas
c) Mexico’s foreign minister suggested Tejanos were susceptible to influence
a. Fed into trope of disloyal Tejanos who did not assimilate

Spanish American War
A. All volunteers fed by war fervor of the Yellow Press
1. War fervor to heal the nation after the Civil War
2. Manifest Destiny on a broader scale (imperialism)
B. Story of Suspected Disloyalty
1. El Paso: Educator HML Lopez accused of harboring Spanish sympathies
2. Laredo: City leader Amador Sanchez is questioned about loyalty b/c he did not join
the war effort. He had to write the local paper to retort: “I am an American first,
last, and all the time.”
3. In West Texas and North Texas, city officials tracked the movement of Tejanos back
to Mexico to note they were not supportive of the war
4. In Eagle Pass, officials criticized donations to Spain
C. Agustin De Zavala
1. Joined the ranks of the Army not for patriotism but for political/economic
advancement
2. Sister was Adina De Zavala (granddaughter of first Republic of Texas VP) who
championed the preservation of the Alamo as a historical piece

Memory
A. George Washington Birthday Celebration in Laredo
1. Entire city shuts down in patriotic fervor since 1898
B. Spanish American a forgotten war besides

B. Republic of Rio Grande 1840s
1. Goals
2. National Loyalty still dubious

Civil War

A. Choices to join Confederates, support Federal government, or Stay Neutral
1. Newspapers praised Tejanos who caught slaves in Mexico
B. Story of Santos Benavides (Laredo) and Juan Cortina (Brownsville)
1. Contemporaries born around the same time
Fought on different sides
C. Adrian Vidal
1. Fought on THREE sides: Union, Confederacy, joined Cortina’s rebels until
executed by French forces

Memory
A. Santos Benavides Middle School (Laredo)
B. Civil War iconography in Laredo (Rebel flag on Masthead/Airport)

Pre 1835 Tejanos
A. Why Texas

1. Scattered Outposts—Life on the Frontier (Fronterizo identity/free border people)

2. Compañias Volantes—Precursor to Texas Rangers

• Uniqueness
• Danny Castro artwork
  3. Identity/Loyalty to Nation when compared to Old 300 Anglos who
  came to Texas

B. Revolution
1. Goals
2. Problems with the Nation

Revolutionary Era Tejanos
A. Choices to join Revolution or Stay Neutral

1. Juan Seguin - Revolution
2. Juan Navarro - Neutral

B. Eclipse of Tejanos in Power
1. Lorenzo de Zavala - Vice President of Texas in 1836 (resigns and dies) No Tejano afterward to replace him
2. Cordova Rebellion in East Texas

Memory
A. Alamo as Shrine

1. De Zavala’s grandaughter Adina becomes a defender of the Alamo
in 1890s and 1900
2. Alamo has fired directors in the last few years

B. Texas Revolution Ideas Suggests Texas is unique in the fabric of the USA

In this episode, host Steve Sisson and historian Dr. Alex Mendoza explore the rich history of Mexican Texans, their dual identity, and the legacy of Confederate memory in Texas. They discuss personal stories, historical battles, and the ongoing reckoning with racial and cultural heritage.

Keywords

Mexican Texans, Texas history, Confederate legacy, border identity, racial tensions, Texas Rangers, cultural heritage, history of Texas, Tejano, Civil War

Key Topics

• Mexican Texans' role in U.S. conflicts from Texas Revolution to Vietnam
• Borderland identity and dual loyalty of Tejanos
• The legacy of George Washington Littlefield and Confederate memory in Texas
• Racial tensions and civil rights movements at the University of Texas
• The evolution of Texas' cultural and racial landscape

Chapters

00:00
Introduction to the Podcast and the Book

01:33
The Motivation Behind the Book

05:06
Identity and Cultural Duality

12:27
Personal Histories and Athletic Rivalry

16:11
Racial Strife at the University of Texas

17:28
The Legacy of George Washington Littlefield

28:54
Memory vs. History in Public Commemoration

36:29
The Complexity of Tejano Identity

41:30
Reflections on Being Texan and American